Coins and medals

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6

H^

8^

COINS AND MEDALS

' No. 3G

! /

;

HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY, No. 36
/

Editsd by C. Johnson, M.A., H, W. V. Tbmpbrlby, M.A.
AND J. P. Whitney, D.D., D.C.L.

COINS AND MEDALS

BY

G. F. HILL, M.A., F.B.A.

KBBPBR OP COINS AND MBDALS IN THB BRITISH MUSBUM

LONDON

SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE

NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1920

MAM AND PWtNTM
'\Uf MITMIi

COINS AND MEDALS

I

From the time of its invention, in the eighth cen-
tury B.C., down to the present day, coinage —
that is to say, metallic currency — suppUes to the
student of history evidence of different kinds and
of varying value. The earlier the period the more
useful, in one way, we may expect to find the coins,
for the simple reason that other contemporary
records are scarcer than in a later age. The coins
may, indeed, be the sole evidence bearing on the
question under consideration. On the other hand,
on account of this very scarcity of contemporary
materials for comparison, the farther back we go
the more difficult it becomes to interpret the coins
themselves, to date them, to say where or by
whom they were issued, to explain the meaning
of their types. The study of nimiismatics does not
fall behind any other branch of historical research
in its demand for caution and clearness of judg-
ment. Indeed, owing to the long and continuous
series of documents with which it deals, affording

numerous parallels between developments in dif-
^ 6

6 COINS AND MEDALS

ferent States and at different periods, it has been
claimed that as a training-ground for the critical
faculty it surpasses every other branch of archae-
ology. It cannot, however, be denied that the
school has produced its due proportion of failures
in this respect, especially in the domain of me-
trology, reminding us of the truism that, excellent
as training may be, it cannot develop a critical
faculty which does not exist in the student.

With this warning of the possibly defective
presentation and interpretation of the evidence,
we may proceed to describe, briefly, the chief cate-
gories into which that evidence may be divided;
after which, in a pamphlet like this, all that can be
done is to supply a select bibliography.
\ As the official product of a department of State,
coins by their very existence bear witness to a
political organization of some kind. Even the
private currencies which at some periods preceded
or even overlapped the stage in which coinage
became the prerogative of the State, as in the
American colonies, throw a sidelight on the eco-
nomic condition of the country. So, too, the enor-
mous quantities of halfpenny and farthing tokens
issued in brass in the names of individuals and towns
in seventeenth-century England give a vivid
suggestion of the difficulties suffered by the lower
classes which they were intended to remedy; and
the shortage of currency in the last years of the

COINS AND MEDALS 7

eighteenth century, and down to the end of the
Napoleonic wars, is illustrated, not merely by the
official issues of Spanish doUars countermarked
with the head of George III., and of the silver
tokens of the Banks of England and Ireland, but
also by the innumerable tokens, sometimes of
silver, but more often of copper, representing towns
or firms or individuals, and by^ the bewildering
" medley halfpence " — limitations of the regal
coinage, with fantastic inscriptions. But these
forms of currency illustrate what we already know
from other sources, rather than supply new facts.
There are coins or groups of coins which afford the
sole evidence for the existence of cities or federal
organizations, or reveal the names and dates of
rulers otherwise unknown. Silerae, a Sicilian
town, which issued bronze coins in the time of
Timoleon, is not mentioned by any ancient authors.
Atusia, on the Tigris, another unknown Greek
town, is represented by a unique bronze piece of
about 100 B.C., on which, it is true, the reading
of the town-name is not quite certain (Atumia
being also possible). And when we realize that
there are coins of the fourth century B.C. bearing
the name of Autocana, it is seen that the attempts
of Homeric critics to emend away the mention
of the Mountain of Autocane in the ^'Hjrmn
to Apollo " are unnecessary. Obviously, places
which have left so slight a trace cannot have had

8 COINS AND MEDALS

much history. Of more importance is such a record
as that provided by a group of coins struck by
Rhodes, Cnidus, lasus, Samos, Ephesus, and
Byzantium, soon after 894 B.C., when Conon ex-
pelled the Spartan oligarchies from many of the
towns on the Asiatic coast. The places mentioned
formed an alliance, and struck alliance coins of
uniform special weight, with their own devices on
the one side and, on the other, the infant Heracles
strangling the serpents — emblem of the birth of a
new democracy. No authors mention this league,
which must have lasted for at least five years,
since Byzantium did not expel her oligarchs until
889. The coinages of federations of which we
know something from literary sources often add
numerous details to our information. Strabo tells
us that the Lycian League comprised twenty- three
towns; the coins give us the names of twenty or
more, and add the information that most of them
were grouped in one or other of two district^-Cragus
and Masicytes. Old Smjrma was destroyed by the
Lydian Alyattes about 585 B.C., and was not known
to have been restored until after the time of Alex-
ander the Great. Yet that an attempt was made
to restore it soon after 400 B.C. has been proved by
the discovery of a fine coin of that period bearing
its name. When we come to regal coinages, whole
series of kings are sometimes recorded by their
coins alone. The coins are the basis of such history

COINS AND MEDALS 9

as it has been possible to construct of the Greek
kingdoms of Bactria and N.W. India. Were it
not for their evidence, we should have supposed
that the results of Alexander's expedition to India
were quite ephemeral, instead of lasting, as they
did, for generations, and laying the foundation
of that Greek influence on Indian art, the develop-
ment of which scholars are now painfully disentang-
ling. The "Western Satraps," who ruled over
Sura^^ra and Malwa from early in the second until
the end of the fourth century of our era, are repre-
sented by a long series of coins which enable us
to establish the sequence of the dynasty with great
accuracy. When coins are dated, as are many
of those struck by the Sdeucid dynasty in Syria,
they afford most valuable chronological data, not
merely of the length of reigns, but frequently of
the swaying fortunes of war, as indicated by the use
of local mints. The history of the Danubian cam-
paigns of Marcus Aurelius from 166 to 180 has been
amplified and corrected in many details by a care-
ful study of the coins; it appears, for instance, that
the battle with which the story of the " Thundering
Legion " is connected took place in 178 rather than
in 174. The coins of Roman Bithynia not only
give us the names of some of the proconsuls who
governed it, but help to establish the curious fact
that, side by side with the regular administrative
officers, the emperor had special procurators en-

10 COINS AND MEDALS

trusted with important military and diplomatic
functions. A good instance of the way in which
coins may confirm the details of history is provided
by a unique penny of Ecgbeorht, calling him
^^ Rex M(erciorum) " and bearing the name of
London, combined with another imique penny of
the same king bearing the name of Redmund, a
moneyer who worked for the Mercian king Wiglaf.
These two coins between them verify the statement
of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that Ecgbeorht
defeated Wiglaf in 827 and held the kingdom of
the Mercians until the next year. In the same cen-
tury the obscure history of East Anglia is en-
riched by the coins with the names of three, per-
haps four, kings: Eadwald, Aethdstcm I., Aethel-
weard, and Beorhtric. The argument from the
non-existence of coins has also sometimes been
effectively used, as, for instance, to illustrate the
policy of Athens during the period of the First
Confederacy, when the mints of many cities among
the Allies appear to have been closed; but it is a
dangerous argument, since a chance discovery may
at any time bring to light coins of a period hitherto
supposed to have lacked them. That is one of the
two cautions which experience particularly imposes
on the student; the other being that it is best not
to draw conclusions from a single coin (especially
if it is imperfectly preserved) without ascertaining
whether they are supported by the rest of its class.

COINS AND MEDALS 11

It is obvious, as was jemarked at the beginning,
that the coinage of a country must throw some
light, however uncertain, upon its economic con-
dition. The questions of the alterations of stan-
dards of weight and fineness, and of the relations
between the metals, are perhaps the most difficult
in numismatics; unfortunately the combination of
economic with numismatic scholarship is exces-
sively rare. The derivation of coin standards, in
particular, is a subject on which the amount of wild
speculation is notorious. The student will do
well to use this kind of evidence cautiously, and
only in its broadest bearing. We know too little
of the reasons which dictated the changes of stan-
dards in antiquity to base theories of trade rela-
tions or political influences on them. We may
be able to establish from the actual weights of coins
the fact that Athens, when in the sixth century
she introduced her currency of " owls," adopted
a rather higher standard than had prevailed among
her neighbours in Euboea and Corinth before; but
what was the reason, whether a change in the rela-
tion between gold and silver, or some convenience
of trade with another country, is matter for specula-
tion. Identity of standard in different States may
sometimes perhaps indicate commercial and eco-
nomic relations between them. Thus, for instance,
it seems clear that Euboea, Athens, and Corinth,
using the same standard, and driving as it were a

12 COINS AND MEDALS

lane between the northern and southern parts of
the mamland of Greece, where another standard
prevailed, must have been in close touch with each
other commercially, lying as they did on the trade-
route which passed from Asia across the Isthmus
to Sicily, But to jump to the conclusion that every-
where identity of coin standards proves the exist-
ence of economic connexions were rash in the ex-
treme. Good metal travels far, and the routes
taken by coins may serve to map currents of trade,
though we should be careful not to r^ard them as
indicating direct relations between the countries
concerned. In the time of Maria Theresa the dollar
bearing the date 1780 became popular in Abys«
sinia and Arabia; it has ever since been minted in
large quantities and exported to those countries;
but it would be a mistake to regard it as evidence
of direct trade relations between them and Austria.
As a matter of fact, such dollars were supplied in
large quantities to Great Britain for her Abyssinian
campaign. Athenian coins found their way in
the fourth century b.c. into Arabia, not necessarily
carried by Athenian traders, but through Southern
Palestine or Egypt, and formed the basis on which
in the third century an imitative coinage was set
up. Clearly there was — as might otherwise have
been expected — a set of trade in this direction,
and it is interesting to note how the new style of
coinage introduced in Athens at the end of the third

COINS AND MEDALS 18

century made its mark on the Arabicm, and how
that influence was again modified by Roman
coins in the first century B.C. Still farther east,
the large finds of Roman coins of the Early Empire
in India show the importance of the trade with that
country. Coins dating from the beginning of the
Empire to the middle of the third century are found
in India in some quantities. Then there is a
cessation, until we come to the coins of the end of
the fourth century, which occur in numbers. Are
we to assume from this that the trade slackened
in the interval ? Whatever the answer, it will
doubtless be affected by the fact that the period
not represented in Indian hoards is precisely the
time of the greatest degradation of the Roman
silver coinage and of the greatest scarcity of Roman
gold.

We may mention a few more examples showing
the use that can be made of the testimony of coins
in regard to trade. Arab historians inform us
that there was in the Middle Ages a brisk trade
between the Arabs and the Baltic lands, chiefly
in furs. As a result, Arab coins made their way
north, and huge hoards have been found in Nor-
thern Germany, Russia, and Scandinavia. But
no gold coins appear in these hoards; any that did
go northwards were doubtless melted down and
made into ornaments, because the Baltic nations
had no gold currency. So far, the coins are evi-

14 COINS AND MEDALS

dence of trade. But similar coins have been found
in Iceland, Scotland, and England. These latter
are no proof of trade with Arab lands; it is clear
that they were brought by the Vikings on their
raiding expeditions. Our second example is found
in the extensive imitation on the Continent, during
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, of the
English silver penny, especially of the types intro-
duced by Henry II. and Edward I. The foreign
^^ sterlings " were undoubtedly in most cases made
with intent to deceive. The types are frequently
exact reproductions of the English king's head,
and the short cross with four, or the long cross
with three, pellets in each cmgle. Some even copy
part of the original inscription. These imitations
were chiefly made at mints of the Low Countries,
but also in Western Germany, Scandinavia, and
Spain; they occur mingled freely in hoards of
pennies found in this country, while English pennies
form part of deposits of foreign sterlings in foreign
lands. A constant flow of both kinds of coins
across the Channel accompanied the Flanders
trade. The fact that it was the English penny that
was imitated is an interesting mark of the domina-
tion of English finance. In the same way, there
could be no better witness to the importance of
Italian commerce, especially in regions farther
east, than the imitations which were made in Hun-
gary, Rhodes, and elsewhere of the Florentine

COINS AND MEDALS 16

or Venetian ducats, the introduction of which in
the thirteenth century marked the beginning of the
decline of Byzantium's command of the Eastern
trade. But in the Low Countries England held
her own, and her gold nobles were freely imitated
by the Flemings in the fifteenth and even the six-
teenth centuries.

From a subject allied to numismatics we may take
a final example of the present category of evidence.
The brass counters used in the West in casting up
accounts were in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies almost exclusively of French, Anglo-Gallic,
or Flemish origin. In the course of the fifteenth
century the Germans, especially in Nuremberg,
discovered that there was profit to be made out of
these humble instruments. They began by imita-
ting the old types and mottoes, usually in inferior
metal. In the course of the sixteenth century
they completely captured the market, and the
names of the German makers appeared plainly on
the counters which were used in this country every-
where save in a few exceptional houses. The
methods of German trade in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries are admirably illustrated by these
counters.

To go into detail on the history of art as illus-
trated by coins would take us too far afield. Coins
reflect the general movement of art with varying
clearness. Affording a long, continuous, closely

16 COINS AND MEDALS

dated series of undoubted authenticity — ^the pro-
portion of forgeries capable of misleading is neglig-
ible — ^they are especially valuable as signposts on
the road along which Greek art travelled. They
are none the less true witnesses because in the best
period coin engravers made no attempt to copy
works of sculpture. An intelligent study of Greek
coins reveals the existence of many a local school
of art which, in the scarcity of monumental re-
mains, would otherwise have remained imknown
to us. In the Roman series the coins reflect the
peculiarities of Roman art: its dependence in the
late Republic and early Empire on Greek models;
its lack of power to invent new conceptions, other
than personifications of the most conventional
kind; its realistic but unimaginative portraiture;
its adoption in the fourth century of the frontal
scheme of composition which was to fetter Chris-
tian art for so many centuries. In the early
Middle Ages the general level is deplorably low.
Occasionally there is a gleam of light. A few of
Offa's coins show an effort at portraiture and design.
Some of the German bracteates of the twelfth
century are very decorative. And Frederick II.
made a characteristic attempt to go back to earlier
models. But the Renaissance came with the splen-
did French and English Gothic coinage of the four-
teenth century, followed in the second half of the
fifteenth century by the revival of the profile

COINS AND MEDALS 17

portrait in Italy under the influence of the great
medallists. The coinage thus accurately records
in its humble script the fact that France was pre-
eminent in the fourteenth century — ^a fact not too
well recognized until recent years — and that it
was not until the fifteenth that Italy resumed
the lead which she had temporarily lost. The six-
teenth century shows almost everywhere a decay
of taste combined with better technique and in-
creasing splendour — ^the Tudor gold is character-
istic. In the seventeenth century mere technique
reaches in France and England a height never sur-
passed. After that time coin engraving becomes
more and more a mechanical craft, bearing Uttle
relation to fine art; although such an eyent as the
arrival of the Elgin Marbles could not fail to affect
the work of a technician like Pistrucci. As in the
greater arts, the Greek models, while improving
technique, overwhelmed the imaginations of their
admirers rather them inspired them with great
ideas.

The importance of coins as o£Gicial docmnents for
the ^arly history of religion and mythology can-
not be over-estimated. It is true that it can no
longer be held that the types of Greek coins were
adopted primarily for religious reasons, or that
the earliest coins were issued under the auspices
of priesthoods. The types appeared on the coins

because they were already the badges or arms of

2

18 COINS AND MEDALS

the issuing authorities. But the mere fact that
the figures or attributes of deities were adopted as
such insignia is evidence — often the only extant
evidence — of the existence of local cults. Thanks
to the coins, we have a fairly complete picture of
the distribution of cults throughout the Greek
world. The exceptions which prove the rule are
provided by purely imitative currencies^ and by
such issues as those of Cyzicus and Lampsacus,
which were made for more or less international cir-
culation, and consequently bore a long series of
changing types, the origin of which is not clearly
understood, but cannot have lain in local cults.
On such a problem as the divinization of kings a
flood of light is thrown by a proper interpretation
of the coins of the Diadochi, which supply almost
all the evidence for the gradual development of
the custom in the Hellenistic age. A remarkable
picture of the worships of the cities of Asia Minor,
Syria, and Palestine in the first three centuries of
the Romcm Empire is given by the local coins,
which show, for instance, how the cult of the
Ephesian Artemis had taken root in many places,
even as far away from its birthplace as Neapolis in
Samaria.

When we come to the adoption of Christianity
as the official religion of the Roman Empire, a
most significant indication of the very gradual way
in which the change was effected is revealed by the

COINS AND MEDALS 19

coin types. The cross first appears as an adjunct
to the still pagan types at the mint of Ticinum
in 814. Six years later the chi-rho monogram is
introduced simidtaneously at five mints. Both
these slight innovations followed recent grants
of privileges to the Christians. After the death
of the pagan Licinius, the new influence becomes
more marked; complete types, not mere adjuncts,
of Christian significance begin to be used. The
reign of Julicm is marked by a sudden outburst of
aggressively pagan types and the suppression of
those of Christian significance. The inaugura-
tion of the Moslem coinage, with an inscription
directly aimed at Christianity, appears to have
been provoked^ by the anti-Moslem policy of
Justinicm II., who introduced the bust of Christ
on his coins with the object of offending Moslem
susceptibilities. It need hardly be said that such
a type vanishes from the coins during the age of
the iconoclastic emperors.

The historian is often expected to give the equi-
valent in modem money for payments recorded
in his docimients. He should take warning that
thare is no fixed rule for forming such estimates.
Even if it is possible to express a value in terms of
labour — ^as when we say that a soldier received a
daric a month — ^we have still to estimate the place
of such labour in the social economy of the time.

80 COINS AND MEDALS

And a glance at such a work as the History of
Agriculture and Prices, by Thorold Rogers, shows
how misleading it may be to estimate the value
of payments by reference to commodities. Quite
apart from the fluctuations of prices from season to
season, it is clear that the parts played by most
commodities in the Ufe of the people in the Middle
Ages were very different from what they are now.
Therefore it is best, when making such guesses at
equivalents, to add that the only certainty is that
the coins mentioned contained so much gold or
silver, which at the present time would be the
equivalent of so much English money.

I

II

The student, when he is told that coins are so
valuable as historical aids, may legitimately ask
to see '' the other side of the medal," and enquire
how the coins themselves are dated. As the reply
to this question reflects some light on the main
object of this pamphlet, it will not be impertinent
to give it in some detail. The procedure is to find
a certain nimiber of fixed points from external
evidence and, so to speak, triangulate from the
bases which they provide. The argument is often
cumidative, and, it must be admitted, would often
fail to find acceptance in a court of law. That,
however, is true of most archaeological and, perhaps,
of much historical argument.

The first fixed points are, of course, given by
coins which bear reference to known historical
facts or persons, or are dated according to some
known era or system. Such references have neces-
sarily to be controlled by knowledge gained from
other sources. That control is not always so easy
as in the case of sixteenth-century medals with the
head of Christ, or eighteenth-century tokens bear-
ing the portraits of John of Gaunt or Queen EUza-

21

22 COINS AND MEDALS

bethy which are supposed by the unmitiated to be
contemporary with those persons; whereas an
elementary knowledge of the history of the art of
coins and medals tells us that they are of much
later date. The problem is usually much more
difficidt. There are, for instance, two series of
coins of Sybaris. The old city was destroyed in
510 B.C. To the period immediately preceding
that year must belong the earlier group of coins,
of a peculiar technique; for any attempt to attri-
bute them to the Athenian colony of New Sybaris,
resuscitated in 448, is checked by our knowledge
of the style of the middle of the fifth century.
(That knowledge, in its turn, is acqidred from coins
of other cities, such as the Greek colonies in Sicily,
the development of which can be watched in the
light of historically fixed data.) This fact, of the
date of the earliest Sybarite coins, once ascertcdned,
becomes a fixed point for controlling the date of
other coins of the same peculiar technique. The
second group of coins of Sybaris is of mid-fifth-
century style; but we cannot be quite certcdn
whether they were struck at New Sybaris, before
it changed its name to Thurium, or at the seces-
sion foundation on the Traeis which split off from
New Sybaris soon after 448. Here style cannot
help us; but since the obverse type of the coins is
Athena, it seems natural to suppose that the coins
belong to the Athenian colony, not to the seces-

COINS AND MEDALS 28

sion, which was conducted by the old Sybctrite
element. There can, in any case» be no doubt
about the approximate date. Occasionally the
internal evidence of the coins gives us both termini,
post quern and ante quern. Thus coins of Himera,
which combine the Himerecm type of the cock
with the Agrigentine crab, must belong to the period
of Agrigentine rule in Himera, 482-472 B.C. Some-
times we obtain valuable information about the
relative dates of two classes of coins from the fact
that one is restruck on the other — i.e. 9 coins of
one class have been used as blanks for making coins
of the other class, and the old types are legible,
as in a palimpsest, under the new ones.

The coinage of Alexander the Great and his suc-
cessors is a good instance of the complexity in
which the dating of coins is sometimes involved,
owing to the immobilization of tjrpes. Coins with
the types and name of Alexander were produced
by all sorts of rulers cmd States from his death in
828 B.C. down to the first century B.C. His im-
mediate successors, such as Lysimachus in Thrace
down to about 811 B.C., and Seleucus in Syria
and Babylonia down to 806 B.C., simply reproduce
his coins, sometimes adding a distinguishing ad-
junct in the field. The coins continue to be copied,
alongside of coins issued by such rulers with their
own types and inscriptions. The style changes by
degrees. The coins are produced not only by the

24 COINS AND BIEDALS

Diadochi, but by the free or semi-autonomous
cities, which in the latest period sometimes maik
them with obviously recognizable symbols, such
as the rose of Rhodes or the wine-jar of Chios.
Sometimes we get a series of dates, though it is
usually very difficult to identify the era by which
those dates are reckoned. It is only of late years
that real advance has been made by intensive
study in the geographical and chronological classifi*
cation of the series. The point for the student
to remember is that the margin of error in dating
some series of coins is much wider than in others.
But such a series as the Alexandrine is exceptional,
although that bearing the name and types of
Lysimachus had nearly as long a life. Normally,
regal coins are the easiest to date, when they bear
distinctive names; but when, as in the case of the
Ptolemies of Egjrpt, or the Arsacids of Parthia,
the dsmastic name, with or without complimentary
epithets, is preferred to the personal name, and
there is more or less immobilization of the types,
classification becomes excessively difficult. We
depend (failing actual dates) on finds, on sequence of
dies, on development of style — ^a treacherous guide
in hdlf-barbarous countries— or on portraiture,
which is likewise apt to mislead.

To give some instances from later times of the
dating of coins by their historical references: There
are silver deniers bearing the title *^Carlus Rex

COINS AND MEDALS • 25

Fr(ancorum)/' and the names of the Italian cities
of Pavia, Milan, Treviso, and Lucca, with the Caro-
lus monogram. To which king do they belong ?
To Charlemagne, because he alone possessed, to-
gether with the title above mentioned, the places
on coins of which these types occur. Again, a
ninth-century denaro with the inscription ** loannes
Papa '* round the abbreviation " Cap." must be
one of the coins which were struck between 872
and 879 by Pandulf, Count of Capua (862-879),
during the time of John VIII. (872-882), to whom
he had submitted himself; coins to which Erchim-
pert refers {Hist. Lang. 47): " Pandonulfus prius
se subdiderat dicto Papae, in cuius vocamine et
chartae et nummi flgurati sunt." The nobles
of Edward III. which omit the title of King of
France and call him merely Lord of Aquitaine
must belong to the years from 1860 to 1869, while
the Treaty of Br^tigny was respected. The Irish
coins of John which call him merely Domin(us)
Yber(niae) must be assigned to the period when he
was Lord of Ireland but not yet King of England
(1177-1199). But in mediaeval and modem, just as
in ancient, times we have to be on our guard against
the immobilization of types. Perhaps the most
disconcerting example of all is provided by the
English silver pennies of the " short cross " series,
which begin under Henry II. in 1180 and continue,
bearing always the same types and the same regal

26 COINS AND MEDALS

name, "Henricus Rex/' through the reigns of
Richard and John into that of Henry III., down
to the year 1247. Only by a prolonged study of the
names of the moneyers, of the records of the mints,
and of the minutest changes in style and letterings
has the dating of these coins been cleared up. The
pennies of the first three Edwards are nearly as
uniform. The groats and half-groats of the first
issue of Henry VIII. reproduce the features of his
father, although the inscription reveals the later
date of the coins. The French series provides a
number of puzzles of the same sort; the immobUiza-
tion of the royal type of the denier at the end of the
CaroUngian period is weU known. The name of
the Sovereign who granted, or was alleged to have
granted, to a city the right to open a mint is often
perpetuated on coins struck generations after his
death; thus the name of Carloman appears on
twelfth-century deniers of Autim, just as if they
had been struck during his reign. The same cus-
tom prevailed in Italy. In Spain, it would appear
that coins of the types of Ferdinand and Isabella
went on being issued after the Queen's death in
1504 even down to 1555. A final and very curious
example: After the death of the Cardinal de Bour-
bon, Charles X., in 1590, the League continued to
strike coins in his name. Fortunately the pieces
thus issued bore dates, showing that they were
struck from 1590 to 1594 and in 1598.

COINS AND MEDALS 27

In antiquity and the Middle Ages — ^indeed, until
the sixteenth century was well advanced — ^the
placing of dates on coins was irregular and sporadic.
Of ancient civil eras the most famous, the Sdeudd,
was used within a few years of its inauguration
in 812 B.C. to date the coins of certain Phosaician
cities. There are numerous other ancient eras
of more local vogue which would be very useful if
we could always decide which we have to do with.
It is not often that an equation is provided, as for
instance at Gaza, where the coins of the time of
Hadrian bear dates calculated from his visit to
the city in 180 and also the years of the local era.
Usually a somewhat complicated calculation is
required to fix an era. Regnal years are, of course,
very useful when they occur. Under the early
Empire the Roman coins are frequently dated by
the years of various offices held by the emperors
(such as the consulship or the Tribunician power)
or by imperatorial acclamations, but the system
is seldom carried through, and after the time of the
Antonines gradually falls out of use. The signing
of coins by State officials was doubtless originally
introduced to fix responsibility for the quality of
the coinage. Where the dates of such officials
have been preserved — as they very rarely have —
we get fixed chronological points. The most
elaborate system was evolved in Athens during
the period of the " New Style " — i.e., from 229 B.C.

28 COINS AND MEDALS

to the time of Augustus. In its most ccmiplete
fonn the system required the eoins to bear (a) the
names of two honorary magistrates, (b) the signet
of the first of these, (c) the name of a third official,
who was probably a member of a controlling com-
mittee of twelve of the Areopagus holding office
in monthly rotation according to the months of the
solar year, (d) a letter denoting the lunar month
in which the coin was issued, and (e) an additional
mint-mark, perhaps indicating the particular mine
by which the metal was su{^lied. A study of these
complex controls, in connexion with astronomical
data, has fixed the precise years of some of the coins
concerned and, it is said, has shown that the
hitherto established chronology of the Athenian
archons is one year too early. Dating by months
is rare outside Athens, although it occurs occa-
sionally in the Pontic and Parthian series. It is
curious to find it on the " gun money," or money
of necessity, issued in the name of James II. in
Ireland after his expulsion from England.

The numismatist, in classifying his coins, of
course works as far as possible with the help of
archives, in addition to casual references in litera-
ture. Use has to be made of edicts and grants
of the right of coinage, legislation of all kinds,
surveys like Domesday, and above all — ^when
available — ^mint records. For ancient times our
knowledge of the organization and procedure of

COINS AND MEDALS 29

mints has to be deduced almost entirely from the
coins. Nothing like the Exchequer Accounts or
Patent Rolls of our Public Record Office has sur-
vived. In the classification of the English coins
the records of the Trials of the Pyx are particularly
useful, especially when they indicate the privy
marks which distinguished the coins which were
assayed.

But documents of whatever kind too often fail
to find confirmation in extant coins. Sometimes
this is due to chance, no specimens having been
preserved from destruction. Sometimes obscurity
in the wording of the document makes it difficult
to identify the coins to which it refers. One of the
cruces of Jewish numismatics is the date of the
'' thick " silver shekels. The traditional attribu-
tion to Simon Maccabaeus has been supposed to
receive confirmation from the statement in 1 Mace.
XV. 5-6 that Antiochus VII. of Syria granted to
Simon the right to strike coins for his own country.
But other evidence — such as fabric and letterii^ —
favours an attribution to the time of the First
Revolt (a.d. 66-70); and this has recently been
confirmed by a find. (It may be observed that
the peculiar character of Jewish art makes the
criterion of style of little service in this case.)
We are, therefore, driven to suppose either that
the grant made by the Syrian king related to a
bronze coinage only, or that Simon did not avail

80 COINS AND MEDALS

himself of it, or that the silver coins which he issued
have not survived. Evidently edicts must not
always be interpreted in what seems the obvious
sense. The ]6dit de Pftres (June 25, 864) ordered
that the deniers should bear on one side the king's
name in a circular legend around his monogram;
on the other ""side, the name of the mint around a
cross. It also ordered that henceforward these
coins should be struck only in the Palace and at
Quentovic, Rouen, Reims, Sens, Paris, Orleans,
Chalons, Melle, and Narbonne. What are the
facts ? Not one of the extant coins of the types
described was struck at any one of these mints:
they were issued from Agen, Aries, Mayence, etc.
What is more, the coins of this type struck at Agen,
Mayence, and elsewhere are earlier than 864,
being in fact of the time of Charlemagne. The
edict therefore (1) was intended not, as might
have been supposed, to introduce a new type, but
to stabilize an old one; (2) was not fully obeyed.

Another enactment that was apparently not fully
carried out was that of the Synod of Greatley in
928. It was ordered that there was to be a uniform
coinage throughout the realm, and that no coin
should be made save in a town. To each burg was
assigned one moneyer; some had more, even up
to eight, which was London's quota. But no less
than four of the mints mentioned — Chichester, Col-
chester, Hastings, and Lewes — are unrepresented

COINS AND MEDALS 81

among the great quantity of coins of Aethelstan
that have come down to us. The towns probably
did not take advantage of the right which was
granted to them. Similarly, in Italy we find that
the earliest coins of Ascoli are of the municipality
and date from the thirteenth century, although
as early as 1087 the bishops of that city received
the right of coinage from Conrad I. The Bishop
of Bergamo could have struck coins in virtue of
a grant from Frederick Barbarossa in 1156, but,
so far as we know, he did nothing of the kind; a
conmiunal coinage began in 1287. A charter
of Henry IV. endowed the Archbishops of Ravenna
with coinage rights in 1068; but the earliest coins
are of the thirteenth century. It is, of course,
possible that some grants of this kind are fictitious,
invented at the time when the coinage actually
began.

Hoards, when secured in their entirety — a con-
dition all too rarely fulfilled, thanks to human
cupidity and negligence — ^provide one of the most
interesting forms of evidence for the dating of
coins, as well as for the state of the currency at the
time of burial. A few instances will make this
clear. The ancient British site on Hengistbury
Head in Hampshire yielded, some years before
the recent excavations, a potful of some 677 coins.
There were 18 Roman Republican denarii, rang-
ing from the second century b.c. to Octavian;

82 COINS AND MEDALS

2 Imperial denarii, of Tiberius and Vitellius;
80 Imperial copper coins (the latest being of
Hadrian); and 16 imitations of Roman coins,
probably made in Gaul. The mass of the find con-
sisted of British coins of various kinds, with a few
strays from the Channel Islands or Gaul. Nearly
800 of the British coins were of kinds previously
known; and about an equal number were of an
entirely new class, cast in moidds instead of being,
in the manner usual with British coins, struck with
dies. The but little worn condition of the latest
Roman coins in the hoard proves that it must
have been deposited not Ipng after the middle
of the second century. The cast coins had ex-
perienced practically no circulation at all. We
are, therefore, entitled to assume, failing rebutting
evidence, that they were new about a.d. 125-150;
and also that the other British coins, of types pre-
viously known, continued in more or less frequent
circulation into the second century. That is
about as near a definition of date as it is possible
to obtain in a barbarous series like the British.

In more civilized currencies, the evidence ob-
tained from finds is more exact. Datings are
obtained by comparison between various hoards.
In the series of our Norman kings the evidence of
finds has been used to fix the sequence of the issues.
The Soberton find contained pennies of Edward
Confessor, Harold, and William I. All the coins

COINS AND MEDALS 83

of the last were of one type, the " profile-cross-
fleiiry/* All other finds which contain coins of
the Confessor and of Harold and William also con-
tain this type of William. It follows that this is
William's first issue. Two other finds at York
combine to show that the " bonnet " type was the
second to be issued in William's reign. The two
types are connected by a '* mule " — i.e. 9 a coin
struck with the obverse die peculiar to one type
and the reverse die of another. Such mules, we
may remark in passing, are invaluable as showing
the connexion between issues.

Hoards are, of course, not without their pitfalls.
When they are neither incomplete, nor " salted "
by the introduction of pieces which were not found
at the same time and place, but have been mixed
with them by carelessness or with intent to deceive,
they may still occasionally mislead. A man who
hoards coins may suddenly come into possession
of somebody else's savings and add these coins to
his own before he buries the lot. Or the sequence
of issues may be very irregularly represented,
because the collecting has not been continuous.
Gold, as being more apt to be hoarded, is less useful
as a witness than less precious metals. Like every
other kind of evidence, this kind requires skilful
handling.

Style, as evidence for the dating of coins, depends
for its cogency on the " eye " of the numismatist.

8

84 COINS AND MEDALS

Combined with fabric — Le.^ the technical make of
a coin — ^it is invaluable. One has, however, to
reckon with deliberate archaism — ^as in the Attic
coinage of the fifth century — ^and with the irregu-
lar development of art, especially in outlying dis-
tricts. Even the Middle Ages were capable of
deliberately reverting to antique designs and fabric
— ^witness the copper coins of William II. struck at
Palermo, with the types of lion's head and date-
palm, which a beginner may easily take for ancient
Greek coins. Our knowledge of the development
of style has, of course, been formed from series
which have been chronologically fixed by various
other kinds of evidence; but the instrument, once
forged, may be used in the first instance by itself.
The best numismatists begin a work of classifica-
tion by style, and then confirm or disestoblish their
conclusions by the application of other criteria.
The general impression is tested by details of
technique, by ornament, by lettering. And when
some sort of arrangement has been established, the
result is submitted to the test of such historical
facts as are available. Inverted as this process
may seem to the inexpert, it is only the logical de-
velopment of the training which enables the expert
to say, without detailed examination, that the
Attic coins bearing the inscription age o aemos, in

spite of the archaic spelling, cannot be earlier than
the third century B.c.

COINS AND MEDALS 85

The reader whose patience has carried him thus
far may feel that the snares which beset the numis-
matic ways are so numerous that it is better to
avoid them altogether. But he need not be un-
duly alarmed. Emphasis has deliberately been
laid on the uncertainties of the subject (which are
no greater than in any other special branch of
historical research) in order that the interpretation
of coins may not be undertaken with the light heart
that betokens inexperience. No student can afford
to neglect the numismatic evidence on his subject
altogether. As an example of the consequences of
such neglect let us recall the prize essay which
identified the Mint of Calais as a savoury herb,
from the cultivation of which a certain revenue
accrued to the English Exchequer.

Ill

A WORD may be added about medals. From the
inauguration of the modem medal by Pisanello in
1488, they provide, in the first place, a very usefiil
factor in biographical research. Many of the
Italian medals, especially, rise to the first rank
in the art of portraiture; not a few medals are the
only authentic portraits of the persons they repre-
sent. Generally speaking, however, it must be
admitted that as documents for political history
they are imsatisfactory. In the sixteenth century
princes were quick to realize the effectiveness of the
medal as a means of propaganda. Henry VIII.,
for instance, issued in 1545 a medal proclaiming
in three languages his claim to be Defender of
the Faith and under Christ Supreme Head of the
Church of England and Ireland. In the iiands of
rulers and parties medals were used with a vigour
which gives them value less as a mirror of facts
than as a revelation of political purposes and party
feeling. In the latter respect they should be very
useful to the historian of politics. It is impossible,
for instance, to have any idea of the popular agita-
tion about Admiral Vernon, his sensational success

86

COINS AND MEDALS 87

at Portobello and his failure at Cartagena, without
a study of the innumerable medals that were flung
broadcast by his admirers. But they bear almost
as little relation to the historic truth as Napoleon's
medal '' struck at London " in 1804 to commemorate
his invasion of England.

IV.— BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Complete list of publications is, of course, out
of the question here. But in each branch of the
subject some of the standard authorities* are
mentioned, together with some of the newer publi-
cations which supplement them in details. Such
details on any particular point must be sought
by the student in the periodical literature, in the
MS. bibliographies of certain branches which are
accessible at the British Museum, and in the coins
themselves.
The leading Periodicals are:

B.N. — Bevtie numismatique frangaise* Paris,
1886—.

N.C. — Numismatic Chronicle. London, 1888 — .

A.J. — American Journal of Numismatics. New
York, 1868—.

N.Z. — Numismatische Zeitschrift. Vienna, 1870 — .

Z.f. N. — Zeitschrift fUr Numismaiik. Berlin,
1874—1915.

B.B. — Reime de la numismatique beige (from 1875,
B. beige de numismatique). Tirlemont and
(from t. iii.) Brussels, 1842 — .

B.I. — Bivista iialiana di Numismatica. Milan,
1888—.

* When the place of publication is not mentioned it Js

London.

38

COINS AND MEDALS 89

B.S. — Bevtie Suisse de numisfnatique. Geneva^
1891—.

J. Int. — Journal international d^ archiologie numis-
matique. Athens, 1898 — .

B.N.J. — British Numismatic Journal. London,
1905—.

Nom. — Nomisma. Berlin, 1907 — .

A.LL — Atti e Memorie deW IstittUo Italiano di
Numismatica. Rome, 1918 — .

For the Russian numismatic periodicals (Trans-
actions of the Imperial Russian Archaeological
Society, Numismatic Section; Transactions of the
Moscow Numismatic Society and Numismatic
Miscellany of the M.N.S.) see the bibliography in
E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge,
1918), p. xxvii.

On the question of the Origins and Evolation
of Coinage information will be found in the general
works mentioned below; but they are specially
treated in W. Ridgeway's Origin of MetaUic Cur*
rency and Weight Standards (Cambridge, 1892);
E. Babelon's Origines de la monnaie (Paris, 1897);
G. Macdonald's Coin Types (Glasgow, 1905); and
Evolution of Coinage (Cambridge, 1916). J.
D^helette, '^ Les Origines de la drachme et de
I'obole'* (JB.iV., 1911), may also be consulted.
C. F. Keary's "Morphology of Coins" {N.C.,
1885-6) is very instructive on the general develop-
ment of coin form.

Metrology and Ocia Staadaidg.— Before attacking

40 COINS AND MEDALS

any of the older works on this subject, the first
section (pp. 8-44) of O. Viedebantt, Farschtmgen
zur Metrologie des AUertuma {Abhandlungen der k.
sacks. GeseUsch. der Wissenschafterif Phil. -hist.
IGasse xxxtv., Leipzig, 1917), should if possible be
read. When the principles there laid down —
especially as to the practical method of ascertain-
ing old standards by the " frequency tables " —
have been mastered, and the warning given above
(p. 11) taken to heart, the views of other writers
may be consoilted in F. Hultsch, Griechische und
romische Metrologie, second edition (Berlin, 1882);
the writings of Lehmann-Haupt in Verhandl. der
Berliner anthropoL GeseUschaft, 1889, and in later
publications, as well as those of his opponent F. H.
Weissbach (references to both in Viedebantt).
P. Gardner's History of Ancient Coinage^ 700-800
B.C. (Oxford, 1918) is the latest EngUsh attempt
to grapple with the subject as a whole; while
G. Macdonald's " Silver Coinage of Crete ** {JProc.
Brit. Acad.f ix., 1920) may be taken as an example
of modem method applied to a single branch. For
the coin standards of mediaeval and modem times
information must be sought in the books classified
below.

Greek and Boman Coins.— The great classic is
J. H. von Eckhel's Doctrina numorum veterum,
8 vols., Vienna, 1792-8. Its modem rival, £•
Babelon*s TraiU des monnaies grecques et romaines

COINS AND MEDALS 41

(Paris, 1901 — ), has the advantage of behig finely
illustrated. The general Introduction (excluding
metrology and typology) fills t. i. The descrip-
tive volumes so far published bring the history
down to the fourth century b.c. for some parts of
the Greek world. The most convenient work of
reference for Greek coins is B. V. Head's Historia
Numorum (Oxford, 1911, with bibliographies up
to date). The Catalogues of the British Museum
(begun in 1878) by Poole, Head, Gardner, Wroth,
and Hill, are now nearly complete (the volumes
on Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia by HiU, and on
Cyrenaica and the rest of North Africa by E. S. G.
Robinson are in preparation). Other large collec-
tive enterprises are: (1) the Berlin Corpus (Berlin,
1898 — ; general editor, F. Imhoof-Blumer); so
far only portions of Die antiken Miinzen Nordr
Griechenlands (Dacia and parts of Moesia, Thrace,
and Macedon) and the first part of Die antiken
Miinzen Mysiens have appeared; (2) the Recueil
giniral des monnaiea grecques d^Asie Mineure^ by
H. Waddington, Th. Reinach, and E. Babelon
(Paris, 1904 — ), which so far has covered Pontus,
Paphlagonia, and Bithynia. Head's Quide to the
Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients (British
Museum, fourth edition, 1895) has seventy-five ex-
cellent plates covering the period before the Chris-
tian era. Useful and well-illustrated catalogues
of the smaller public and private collections are

42 COINS AND MEDALS

6. Macdonald's CatcHogue of the Greek Coins in the
Htmterian Collection (Glasgow, 1899-1905); K.
Regling's Sammhrng Warren (Berlin, 1906; the
Boston Collection); and Collection B. Jameson
(Greek and Imperial Roman: Paris, 1918).

On the general theory of ancient coinage, F.
Lenormant's La monnaie dans VanliqaiU (Paris,
1878-9) is still veiy instructive. Hill*s Handbook
of Greek and Roman Coins (1899) has full references
and bibliographies (the metrological chapter should
be ignored). Gardner's Types of Greek Coins
(Cambridge, 1882) and Macdonald's Coin Types
(see above) should be consulted on the develop-
ment and significance of types* The use of Greek
coins fpr teaching history is exemplified in different
ways by Hill's Historical Greek Coins (1906) and
Gardner's History above mentioned* An invaluable
list of all the names of officials found on Greek
coins is given by R. Munsterberg, '^ Beamtennamen
auf griechischen Miinzoi" in NJZ.^ 1911-1914.
None of the periodicals mentioned above (except,
perhaps, A.J. before 1912) can be neglected by the
student of Greek coins. There is no room here
for a list of the monographs on special parts of the
Greek world, but a very few of the most recent may
be selected:

Syracuse: L. Tudeer, " Tetradrachmenpragung
von Syrakus in der Periode der signierenden
Kiinstler," in Z. f. N., 1918. S. BuflBia, Eiiigdom

COINS AND MEDALS 48

oi Bosporus, etc.: E. H. Minns, Scyfhians and
Greeks (Cambridge, 1918). Balkans: N. A. Mush-
mov, Ancient Coins of the Balkan Peninsula and
of the Tsars of Bulgaria (Sofia, 1912; in Bulgarian);
L. Ruzicka, ^' Miinzen von Serdica " in JV.Z., 1915;
and ^^ Inedita aus Moesia inferior " in ^,Z., 1917
(numerous additions to the Berlin Corpus).
Uaoedon: J. N. Svoronos, VhelUnisme primitif
de la Macidoifhe prouvS par la numismatique

(Paris, Athens, 1919). Alezandar the Great and
Aleiaodrine Coinages: E. T. Newell, important
articles in A.J.y 1912 and 1918, and N.C., 1915;
also Dated Alexander Coinage of Sidon and Ake
(Yale University Press, 1916). Elis : C. T. Seltman,
" The Temple Coins of Olympia,*' in Nom.^ viii.,
ix. (1918-14). Crete : 6. Macdonald, '' The Silver
Coinage of Crete," in Proc. Brit. Acad., ix., 1920.
Asia mnor : H. von Fritze, '' Elektronpragung
von Kyzikos " in Nom.y vii. (1912); " Silberpragmig
von Kyzikos," i6., ix. (1914). J. Mavrogordato,
'^ Chronological Arrangement of the Coins of
Chios " in JV.C, 1915-18. Syria : E. T, NeweU,
Seleucid Mint of Antioch " in A.J.^ 1917, and
Pre-Imperial Coinage of Roman Antioch " in

^.C, 1919. Arabia and Mesopotamia: Hill,

^^ Ancient Coinage of South Arabia " in Proc. Brit.
Acad.f vii. (1915), and " Mints of Roman Arabia
and Mesopotamia " in Joum. Roman Studies^ vii.
(1917). Allotte de la Fuye, '' Monnaies de FJ^ly-

44 COINS AND MEDALS

maide " in R.N., 1919. Persia : HiU, '' Imperial
Persian Coinage *' in Journal of Hellenic Studies 9
1919. Northern Africa: E. S. 6. Robinson,
" Quaestiones Cyrenaicae *' in N.C.y 1915. Finally^
it should be mentioned that the miscellaneous
descriptions of coins by F. Imhoof-Blumer all
deserve the most careful attention.

For Boman coins, treated separately from Greek :
Th. Monmisen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine^
translated by Due de Blacas and J. de Witte
(Paris, 1866-75); this is antiquated in regard to
dating of the earUest coinage. On the chronology
of the Republican period: E. J. HaeberUn's
^^ Systematik des altesten romlschen Miinzwesens "
(in Berliner MUnzbldtterf 1905) is dogmatic, but
marks a great advance. His great descriptive
work Aes grave^ das Schwergeld Boms und MitteU
iUdiens (Frankfurt-a.-M., 1910) and H. A. Grueber's
British Museum Catalogue, Boman Bepublic (1910),
together give a complete picture of the coinage be-
fore the time of Augustus. M.Bahrfeldt has recently
corrected many details in the RepubUcan series,
in N.Z.y 51 (1918). His earUer Nachtrage v/nd
Berichtigungen zur MOnzktmde der romischen Be-*
publik (Vienna, 1897), a criticism of Babelon*s work
on the subject, must not be neglected by the
student of minute details. A general outUne of
the development of the Roman monetary system
by E. A. Sydenham is in progress in ^.C, 1918 — .

COINS AND MEDALS 45

An introduction to the historical bearings of the
Republican series is given in Hill's Historical
Roman Coins (1909). The transition to the Empire
is cleverly handled by H* Willers» Geschiehte des
romisehen KupferprSgung bis auf Kaiser Claudius
(Leipzig^ 1909). The difficult questions connected
with the organization of the coinage by Augustus
have recently been much discussed : see L. Laff ranchi,
La Monetazione di Augtufto (Milan, 1919); H. Mat-
tingly in Journal of Roman Studies, vii. ; and the same
and E. A. Sydenham in N.C, 1917-19. Indispens-
able, though remarkably inaccurate, is H. Cohen's
Monnaies frappies sous T empire romain (second
edition, Paris, 1880-92). F. Gnecchi's ''Appunti
di Numismatica Romana" (running through the
greater part of the 22./.) have brought to light
many impublished coins.

From the literature dealing with special periods
of the Empire we select the following:

First century, post- Augustan: E. A. Sydenham,
Coinage of Nero (1920) r H. Mattingly, ''Coinage
of the Civil Wars of 68-9 a.d. {N.C, 1914). L.
Laffranchi, '' Un centenario nmnismatico nell'
antichitJi" [Vespasian] («./., 1911). B. Pick,
" Zur Titulatur der Flavier " (Z./.iV., xiii., 1885).

Second century: C. H. Dodd, " Eastern Cam-
paigns of L. Verus ** (JV.C, 1911) and " Danubian
Wars of Marcus Antoninus " {N.C., 1918).

Third century: K. Menadier, Die Miinzen und

46 COINS AND MEDALS

das Miinsswesen bei den Scriptores Historiae AugastM
[treacherousness of these authorities as regards
ecHnage] (Berlin Diss. , 1918). O. Voetter, '^ Miinzen
des Kaisers GaUienus und seiner Familie '* (JV.Z.,
1900), A. Markly ** Die Reichsmiinzstatten unter
der Regierung Claudius II. Grothicus '* (iV.Z., 1884);
ditto for Quintillus {N.Z., 1890). Th. Rohde,
Miinzen des Kaisers Awelianus^ seiner Frau
SeveriruL^ v/nd der Fiirsten von Palmyra (Miskoloz,
1881). O. Seeek, ^^ Miinzpolitik Diodetians und
seiner Nachfolger " (Z./. N., 1890). P. H. Webb,
"Carausius'* {N.C.y 1907, and separately 1908);
and " Allectus '* {N.C., 1906). O. Voetter on the
bronze coinage of the Diodetianic tetrarchy in
N.Z., 1899, 1911, 1917, 1918.

Fourth century : the coinage of the Constantinian
period generally is treated with great historical
knowledge by J. Maurice, Numismatique Con-
stantinienne (Paris, 1908-12). H. Willers, '' Rd-
mische Silberbarren mit Stempeln" (important
for late fourth-century currency) {N.Z., 1898,
1899). A. J. Evans, ^^ Roman Currency in Britain
from Valentinian I. to Constantine III." (iV.C,
1915).

A complete illustrated corpus of Roman medal-
Uons is provided by F. Gnecchi, Medaglioni
Bamani (Milan, 1912).

The periodicals which deal with Greek (except
J. Int.) should also be consulted for Roman numis-

COINS AND MEDALS 47

matics; the ItaEan ones naturally specialize on
this branch.

Bjrzailtilie coinage is fully described by J.
Sabatier, Monnaies byzantines (Paris and London »
1862), W. Wroth, British Museum Caialogue of
Imperial Byzantine Coins (1908), and Count J.
Tolstoi, Monnaies byzantines^ in Russian (St. Peters-
burg, 1918 — ^in progress). Wroth*s British Museum
Caialogue of the Coins of the VandalSy Ostrogoths^
and Lombards (1911) also contains the sub-Byzsan-
tine coinages of Thessalonica, Nicaea, and Tre-
bizond.

The vast subject of the medieval and modem
coinage of the European (Jontinent is summarized
by A. Engel and R. Serrure, Numismatique du
moyen dge (Paris, 1891-95), and Numismatique
modems (Paris, 1897-99). A shorter general theory
of numismatics is given in A. Luschin von Eben-
greuth's Allgemeine Mimsdcunde und Geldgeschichte
(Munich, 1904). Monetary standards and the
^^ effects of currencr^ and efxchange phenomena on
commercial and national progress and well-being "
in the period 1252-1894, in America as well as
Europe, are the subject of W. A. Shaw*s History
of Currency (no date; bibliography).

Two attempts at dictionaries of names of coins,
chiefly useful for medieval and modem numismatics,
should perhaps be mentioned here: E. Martinori,
La Moneta (Rome, 1915), and A. R. Frey, '' Die-

48 COINS AND MEDALS

tionaiy of Numismatic Names ** in AJ.^ 50 (1916).
The latter writer has also compiled a list of dated
European coins earlier than 1501 in A.J.<^ 47
(1918).

Leaving Britain aride for the moment, we note
the following monographs, for the most part later
than the summaries above mentioned :

France. — ^A. Blanchet et A. Dieudonn^, Manuel
de numismoHque frangaise (Paris, 1912-16) gives
the history of the regal coinage down to the Revolu-
tion, and when complete will also describe the
feudal series; full references.

Spain and Dominioiui.— M. Vidal Quadras y
Ram6n, Caidlogo de la ColecdSn de Monedas y
Medallas (Barcelona, 1892). J. Botel y Siso,
Les monedes catalanes (Barcelona, 1908-11). A.
Herrera, El Duro: esivdio de los reales de a ocho
espatiolaSy etc. (Madrid, 1914).

Low (Jonntries. — On the imitations of the ster-
lings, J. Chautard, Imitations des mannaies an
type esterlin (Nancy, 1872) remains indispensable.
A. de Witte, HisUnre monUaire des Camtes de
Louvainy Dues de Brahanl (Antwerp, 1894-99).
E. Bemays et Jules Vann^rus, Histoire numis-
matique du Comti puis Duchi de Luxembourg
(Brussels, 1910).

(Stennan Lands. — ^A supplementary volume to
H. Dannenberg's DetUsche Mimzen der Sachsischen
und frankischen Kaiserzeit appeared in 1905.

COINS AND MEDALS 49

H. Buchenau, Der Bradeatenfund van Seega
(Marburg, 1905) deals with the bracteate currencr^
of the Hohenstaufen period. E. Bahrfeldt, Mii/nz-
wesen der Mark Brandenburg (Berlin, 1889-95, and
Halle-a.-S., 1918), and Mimzenr tmd Medaitten-
Sammlung in der Marienburg, including series of
Brandenburg, Prussia, and Danzig (Danzig, 1901-
10). F. von SchrStter und 6, Schmoller, Das
preussische Mimssxoesen im 18 Jahrhundert (Berlin,
1902-18). F. von Schrotter, Die Mimzen Friedrich
Wilhelms des Grassen Kurfiirsten tmd Friedrichs III.
von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1918). P. Joseph und
E. Fellner, Mimzen van Frankfurt-am-Main (Frank-
furt, 1896). J. P. Beierlein, MedaiUen tmd Mimzen
des Gesammihauses WiUelsbach (Munich, 1897-^1901).
E. Fiala, Beschreibung der Sammhmg bohmischer
Mimzen tmd MedaiUen des M. Danebauer (Prag,
1890); Kaialog der Mimzen- und MedaiUen'Stempel-
Sammhmg des K. K. HauptmimzanUes in Wien
(Vienna, 1901-8); and Mimzen tmd MedaiUen der
Welfischen Lande — i.^„ Brunswick, etc. (Berlin,
1904-12); L. R6thy, Carpus numorum Hungariacy
two parts published, to sixteenth century (Buda-
pest, 1899-1907). Besides the German periodicals
already mentioned, note the Frankfurter Mimzzei-
tu/ng (Frankfurt-a.-M.), BlSUer fiir Mimzfreunde
(Dresden), ManatsblaU der numismatischen GeseUr
schafi in Wien (Vienna), and NumismaUkai Koz-

ISny (Budapest).

4

so COINS AND MEDALS

S wiiawiand. — ^L. Coiaggioni, Miinzgeschichte der
Schweiz (6eneva»/1896); W. Tobler-Meyer, MilnZ"
tmd MedaiUen'Sammlisng dea H. Wunderly v.
MwaU (Ziirich^ 1895-99). The Townshend collec-
tion of Swiss coins (R. S. Poole, Descripiive Cedar
iogue of the Swiss Coins in the South Kensington
Museum^ 1878) is now deposited in the British
Museum. Periodical: Revue Suisse de numis-
maiique.

Italy. — ^Bibliography in F. and E. Gnecchi,
Saggio di Mbliografia numisnuUica deUe zecche
iiaUane (Milan, 1889); supplements in 22./.,
1906 and 1916. A useful survey of the period
476-1266 is given in Part I. of 6. Sambon*s Beper-
torio generate deUe monete coniate in Italia • . • dal
secohValXX'' (Paris, 1912). The King of Italy's
Corpus Nummorum Italicorum wiU give a complete
list of coins. So far seven volumes have appeared
(Rome, 1910 — ), covering the North of Italy (House
of Savoy, Piedmont, Liguria, Corsica, Lombardy,
Venice). Venice is also fully dealt with by
N. Papadopoli, Monete di Venezia (Venice,
1898-1919). The admirable Vatican Catalogo
deUe monete e bvUe pontificie (Milan, 1910-18) by
C. Serafini should be supplemented by E. Martinori's
Annali delta Zecca di Boma, 1870-1870 (Istituto
Italiano di Numismatica, Rome, 1917 — f in pro-
gress). For the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, see
Memmo Cagiati, Monete del Beame deUe due

COINS AND MEDALS 61

Sicilie (Naples^ 1911-16, in progress); and for
Benevento the same author's "Zecea di Bene-
vento " in JB./., 1916-16.

The Italian periodicals mentioned above should
also be consulted on Italian coins.

Malta. — ^H. C. Schembri, Coins and Medals of
the Knights of Malta (1908) does not entirely super*
sede E. H. Furse, Mimoires numismatiques de
VOrdre Souverain de Saint Jean de Jerusalem
(Rome, 1886).

Denmark. — P. Hauberg, Myntforhold og Vdmynt*
ninger i Danmarh indtil 1146 (Copenhagen, 1900,
summary in French). J. Wilcke, Christian IV.* s
MpntpolUih, 1588-1625 (Copenhagen, 1919).

Sweden. — FSrteekning ofver AnteUska Myntsamm-
Ungens i Helsingfors: Svenska Mynt (two parts
published, to sixteenth century, Helsingfors,
1906-8); K. A. WaUroth, "Sveriges Mynt 1449-
1917 '* in Svenska Num. Meddelauden (Stockholm,
1918).

Money of necessity and siege-money of all
European States are collected in Feld-y Not- und
Belagerungsmimzen^ by A. Brause (Berlin, 1897-
1908).

Great Britain and Ireland.— A scholarly summary

work on the coinage of these islands is badly wanted.
The foundations for a study of the early British
coinage were laid by Sir John Evans in his Ancient
British Coins (1864; supplement, 1890). Some in-

62 COINS AND MEDALS

teresting details have to be added^ as the identifica-
tion of the currency of iron bars: latest in A.
BuUeid and H. St. 6. 6ray» The Ghstonbury Lake
Village^ ii., pp. 896-408 (Glastonbury, 1917); coin ol
Cartimandua (in N.C., 1897); and the coinage of the
Hengistbury Head settlement (J. P. Bushe-Fox,
Soc. of Antiquaries, Excavations at Hengistbury
Heady Oxford, 1916). For other additions to the
literature of early British coins consult the indexes
to N.C. and B.N.J. R. Ruding's Annals of the
Coinage (London, 1840) covers the whole ground
for England, but requires revision throughout.
The Anglo-Saxon coins in the British Museum have
been catalogued by C. F. Keary and H. A. Grueber
(1887 -1898); these volumes should be supplemented
by B. E. Hildebrand's Anglosachsiska Mynt (Stock-
holm, 1881), which is based on the vast quantities
of coins which, especially from Aethelred XL's
time, found their way to Scandinavia; by H. A.
Grueber's account of an important hoard of late
eighth and ninth century coins (^.C, 1894); and
by various other articles in N.C. and B.N.J. The
Norman period is exhaustively treated in the British
Museima Catalogue^ "'Norman Elings," by G. C.
Brooke (1916).

Articles on special periods of English numis-
matics which have not yet been assimilated by
standard books are :

On the " Short Cross" Period (1180-1247), L. A.

COINS AND MEDALS 68

Lawrence in B.N.J.^ second series, i. (1914)» and
N.C., 1916. " Long Cross *' coinage of Henry III.
and Edward 1. : Lawrence in B.N.J.y x., and second
series, i. (1918-14). On the first three Edwards,
J. Shirley-Fox and H. B. Earle Fox in B.N.J.,
1909-18 (summary of the classification of pennies
in N.C.9 1917). Brooke's account of the East
Raynham find of nobles, N.C.y 1911. Crump and
Johnson on the bullion coined in these reigns,
N.C., 1918, Richard II.: F. A. Walters, N.C.,

1904. Henry IV.: Lawrence and Walters, iV.C,

1905. Henry V.: Walters, N.C., 1906. Henry
VI.: Walters, N.C.y 1902-8, 1911. Edward IV.:
Walters, N.C.y 1909-10, 1914. Henry VIL:
Lawrence, N.C.y 1918. Tudors and early Stewarts :
much new material from archives is collected
by H. Symonds in N.C.y 1910-17, and B.N.J.y
1911-14.' Anglo-Gallic series: L. Hewlett has
given in N.C.y 1905-19 (also separately, Anglo-
Gallic CoinSy 1920), a careful revision of the whole
subject, except the Calais issues, for which see J.
Bailhache in R.N.y 1916.

Such articles must be used to supplement the
lists found in collectors' handbooks like E. Haw-
kins's Silver Corns of England (third edition, by
Kenyon, London, 1887), R. LI. Kenyon's Gold
Coins of England (London, 1884), and H. Montagu's
Coppery Tiny and Bronze Coinage . . . of England
(1898), or inH. A. Grueber's British Museum Han(2-

54 COINS AND MEDALS

book to the Coinage of Great Britain and Ireland
(London, 1899).

For the documents relating to the English Mint
in the Public Record OflSce, see Lists and Indexes —
ii. (1898): '^Declared Accounts, "pp. 52 -56, 280-288;
xi. (1900): ** Foreign Accounts," pp. 66-61; and
XXXV. (1912): "Various Exchequer Accounts,*' pp.
176-186,

For the "Saxon, Norman, and Plantagenet
Coinage of Wales,'' see P. W. P. Caxlyon-Britton
in B.N. J., 1905.

Scotland is comparatively well represented by
R. W. Cochran-Patrick's Records of the Coinage
of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1876) and E. Bums's
Coinage of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1887), together
with A. B. Richardson's Catalogue of the Scottish
Coins in the National Museum^ Edinburgh (Edin-
burgh, 1901). 6. Macdonald's account of the
Mini of Crossraguel Abbey (JV.C, 1919) throws fresh
light on the state of the coinage in the late fifteenth
century,

Ireland is in bad case. Scattered papers by
Aquilla Smith in Trans. sndProc. Royal Irish Acad.f
1840-58; Trans. Kilkenny Archceol. Soc.y 1854 ff.,
and in JV.C, 1868-85, must be supplemented by
G. Coffey's Catalogue of Irish Coins in the Collection
of the Royal Irish Academy y Part II. : " Anglo-
Irish" (Dublin, 1895); B. Roth's " Danish Kings
of Ireland'* {B.N J., vi., 1909); H. Symonds's

COINS AND MEDALS 55

articles in N.C.^ 1915 and 1917, on the Irish coinage
from Henry VIII. to Elizabeth; and P. Nelson's
Coinage of Ireland in Copper^ Tin, and Pewter^
1460-1826 (Liverpool, 1906). The last writer
has also described the " Cdmage of the ble of
Man " m N.C., 1899.

The token coinage of the seventeenth century
(of some interest for local history) is collected by
W. Boyne, Trade Tokens issued in the Seventeenth
Century^ second edition, by 6. C. Williamson
(1889-91); numerous additions in the Proceedings
of local archaeological societies. The much less
important tokens produced in these islands (not
always without an eye on the collector) in the late
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are described,
with the same object, by J. Atkins, Tradesmen's
Tokens of the EiglUeenth Century (1892); R. Dalton
and S. H. Hamer, Provincial Token Coinage of
the Eighteenth Century (1910-17); and W. J. Davis,
Nineteenth-Century Token Coinage (1904). F. P.
Barnard's Casting-Counter and Counting-Board
(Oxford, 1916) deals very thoroughly with an in-
teresting side-issue of numismatics with some
bearing on commerce in Europe from the fourteenth
to the seventeenth centuries (full bibliography).

The currency of the British colonies is discussed
from the economic point of view by R. Chalmers,
History of Currency in the British Colonies (1898).
J. Atkins's Coins and Tokens of the Possessions and

56 COINS AND MEDALS

Colonies of (he British Empire (1889) is merely a
collector's handbook.

The American colonies receive special treatment
in the books mentioned below; see also P. Nelson,
*' Coinage of William Wood for the American
Colonies " {B.N.J., i., 1905).

America. — ^For the States see M. W. Dickeson,
American Numismatical Manual (Philadelphia,
1859); S. S. Crosby, Early Coins of America (Boston,
1878), and the files of the A.J. Both North and
South America are covered by A. Weyl's catalogue
of the Jules Fonrobertsche Sammlung iiberseeischer
MUnzen und MedaiUen^ Parts I. to III. (Berlin,
1877-8). For Spanish and independent Central
and South America see A. Rosa, Monetario Ameri-
cano (Buenos Aires, 1892); the works of J. Meili,
especially Das brasilianische Geldwesen (Ziirich,
1897-1905); A. Herrera, El Duro (above, under
Spain); and J. T. Medina, MedaUas y monedas
chilenas (Santiago de Chile, 1901-2), and Las
m^medas obsidionales hispano-americanas (Santiago
de ChUe, 1919).

India, Persia, etc. — ^The invaluable smnmary of
Indian numismatics as one of the sources of Indian
history down to the fourteenth century, by E. J.
Rapson ('' Indian Coins " in G. Biihler's Grundriss
der IndO'Arischen Philologie und AUertumshwndey
Bd. ii., Strassburg, 1898) is provided with very full
bibliographical references up to date. The follow-

COINS AND MEDALS 57

ing publications of later years may be mentioned :
Catalogue of Coins in the Indian MtLseum^ Calcutta^
I., by V. A. Smith (Oxford, 1906). Catalogue of
the Panjab Museum, Lahore, I.» *^ Indo-Greek
Coins," by R. B. Whitehead (Oxford, 1914).
British Museum Catalogues: Andhra Dynasty,
Western Ksairapas, Traikuiaka, and ^^Bodhi**
Dynasties, by Rapson (1908), and Gupta Dynasties
and SaSa/hka, King ofGauda, by J. Allan (1914).

Nothing of importance on the Sassanian coinage
of Persia has appeared recently, except J. de
Morgan's study, *^ Des ateliers mon^taires sous la
dynastic des rois sassanides de Perse" {B.N.9 1918).

On later non-Muhammadan series we may note
E. H- Walsh, " Coinage of Nepal," in Journal B.
Asiatic Soc., 1908, and J. Allan, '^ Coinage of
Assam," in N.C., 1909.

For the Muhammadan period, reference should
be made to the bibliography in O. Codrington's
Manual of Mu^alman Numismatics (Royal Asiatic
Society, London, 1904). The catalogues of the
Indian Calcutta Museum (vols. ii. and iii., Sultans of
Delhi and Mughal Emperors, by H. Nelson-Wnght,
Oxford, 1907-8), of the Panjab Museum, Lahore
(vol. ii., Mughal Emperors, by R. B. Whitehead,
Oxford, 1914) and of the Lucknow Museum {Mughal
Emperors, by C. J. Brown, Oxford, 1920), are now
available. R. B. Whitehead's ''Mint Towns of
the Mughal Emperors" {Joum. As. Soc. Bengal,

S8 COINS AND MEDALS

ldl2) is most valuable for the Mu^ial period.
Articles on Indian coins appear regularly in the
Numismatic Supplement to the last-mentioned
journal, from 1904. /

The Uterature of the Muhammadan coinages of
other countries has not received any impybrtant

manual. We note, however, E. von Zambaur*s
'' Contributions k la numismatique orientale " in
N.Z., 1904, 1906, 1914.

The Fbx Eaat. — J. H. S. Lockhart*s Currency of
the Farther East (Hong-Kong, 1895-98) and his
Catalogue of his own collection (Shanghai, 1915) give
illustrations of all the chief coinages. The British
Museum Catalogue of Chinese Coins^ by Terrien de
la Couperie (1892), covers only the period from the
seventh century B.C. to A.p. 621. L. C. Hopkins*s
important discussion of this author's theories
(" On the Origin of Chinese Coinage," in Joum. JB.
Asiatic Soc.^ 1895) should be consulted. The great
native work is Ku-Ch'uan Huei, 15 vols. (1852).
6. Vissering, On Chinese Currency^ Coin^ and
Paper Money (Leyden, 1877) is important. W.
Vissering, On Chinese Currency (Amsterdam, 1914),
and S. R. Wagel's Chinese Currency and Banking
(Shanghai, 1915), on the other hand, are chiefly
concerned with finance. J. A. Decourdemanche
deals with Eastern metrology in his TraiU des
numruiiesj mesures et poids andens et modemes de

COINS AND MEDALS 59

rinde etdela Chine (Paris, 1918). N. G. Monro's
Coins of Japan (Yokohama, 1904) is popular
(bibliography of native authorities, p. 265); and
E. de Villaret's " Numismatique japonaise *' {R.N.^
1892) is well illustrated. C. T. Gardner has de-
scribed the coinage of Corea in Joum. of China
Branch of B. Asiatic Soc., xxvii. (Shanghai, 1892-8).
For Annam reference may be made to D. Lacroix,
Numismatique annamite (Saigon, 1900), and A.
Schroeder, Annam^ Hudes numismatiques (Paris,
1905.

Medals.

Many of the books mentioned under Coins
describe medals also; these are not repeated in this
list, from which also monographs on individual
artists or groups of medals, as well as many older
books, are excluded for lack of space.

Collective Works. — Trisor de numismMique et
de glyptique, edited by P. Delaroche, H. Dupont,
Ch. Lenormant (Paris, 1884-41) [Italian and German
Medals of the Renaissance, Papal to Gregory XVI.,
and French from Renaissance to First Empire].
G. F. Hill, Medals of the Benaissance (Oxford,
1920) [Italian, German, French, Netherlandish,
British; from the artistic point of view; biblio-
graphy]. The excellent international periodical,
Archiv fur Medaillen- vnd Plaketten-Kunde (Halle-
a.-S., 1918^), suspended during the war, is to be
continued.

60 COINS AND MEDALS

Italian. — ^A. Armand, Les MidaiUeurs italiens
des quinzidme el seizUme sUcles (Paris, vols, i., ii.,
second edition, 1888; vol. iii., 1887) [unillustrated :
contains also many French medals]. A. Heiss,
Les Midmlleurs de la Renaissance (Paris, 1881-92).
C. von Fabriczy, MedaiUen der italienischen Renais-
sance (Leipzig, no date; English translation by
Mrs. Hamilton, 1904) [artistic]. P. Rizzini, IlhiS'
trazione dei Citnci Mtisei di Brescia, Parte ii.
[Italian Medals, fifteenth to eighteenth centuries]
(Brescia, 1892). P. Bonanni, Numismala PonUfi-
cum Bomanorum [from Martin V. to 1699] (Rome,
1699).

German. — ^K. Domanig, Die deulsche MedaiUe
in kunst' und kuUurhistoriscker Hinsichi [based on
the Vienna Collection] (Vienna, 1907). G. Habich,
^^ Studien zur deutschen Renaissance-Medaille,"
in progress in Jahrhuch der preussischen KunsU
sammltmgen from 1906 [artistic]. The same. Die
detUschen Medailleure des am. Jahrhunderts (Halle-
a.-S., 1916) [artistic, summary, bibliographies].
J. Bergmann, Medaillen aufberuhmie und atLSgezeich-
nete Manner des Oeslerreichischen Kaiserstaales
(Vienna, 1844-57). K. Domanig, Parlratmedaillen
des Erzhauses Oesterreich (Vienna, 1896). Berlin,
Konigliche Museen» Schaumimzen des Hav^es
Hohenzollem (Berlin, 1901). W. E. Tentzel,
Saamiia numismatica (Dresdeoi, 1705-14).
Low Countries. — 6. van Loon, Hisloire MMalr

COINS AND. MEDALS 61

lique des ami. Provinces* 'S^ .Pays-Bos [to 1716]
(The Hague, 1782-7), sup^'ferij^t in Dutch to
c. 1800 (Amsterdam, 1821-69). ^Quioth, Histoire
numismatique de la B^oliUion iifge (Hasselt,
1844-5). J. Sunonis, L\Art du 'Siidailleur en
Belgique (Brussels, 1900-4) [artistic]. V. Toumeur,
MSdaiUes du Bayaume de Belgigtie^ I.'*i63Qr-i7

(Brussels, 1911). '•;.•:;•

France. — ^F. Mazerolle, Les MSdailleurs frangais:

«

du mf siicle au milieu du aruii* (Paris, 1902-4]r.*
Administration des Monnaies et M^ailles, Midaih
Us frangaises dont les coins sont conservis au Musie
monitaire (Paris, 1892). L. Bramsen, Midailler
NapoUon le Grand (Paris and Copenhagen, 1904-7).

Great Britain and Ireland. — ^A. W. Franks and
H. A. Grueber, Medallic IllustratiorM of the History
of Great Britain and Ireland (1885). Plates to the
same, with summary descriptions (1904-11). J. H.
Mayo, Medals and Decorations of the British Army
and Navy (Westminster, 1897). Marquess of Mil-
ford Haven, British Naval Medals (1919) (volumes
on naval medals of other nations to follow).

Spain. — ^A. Vives, MedaUas de la Casa de BorbSny
de D. Amadeo /., del Crobiemo provisioruU y de la
Bepublica espafiola (Madrid, 1916).

Scandinavia. — Beskrivelse over Danske Mynter
og MedaiUer (Copenhagen, 1791). B. E. Hilde-^
brand, Sveriges och Svensha Konungahusets Min-
nepenningar (Stockholm, 1874). V. Bergs0e,

62 COINS AND-.|[EDALS

•

Danske Medaitter ogJOonsfra 1789-1892 {Narges
til 1814 9 Slesvig og jkx^tens til 1864) (Copenhagen,

1898). ..; ••

Poktlifl. — ^K>/ "Hutten-Czapski, Collection des
MidaiUes kir.Monnaies polonaises (St. Petersburg,
1871-80).

Asqiflrica. — C. W. Betts, American Colonial
Sistfiry illustrated by Contemporary Medals (New
York, 1894). J. T. Medina, MedaUas coloniales
'- >',hisparM-americanas (Santiago d^ Chile, 1900);
'*'. Las MedaUas ChUenas (Santiago de Chile, 1901);
MedaUas de Proclamaciones y Juras de los Reyes
de Espana en AmMca (Santiago de Chile, 1917);
and Zro^ MedaUas del Almirante Vernon (Santiago
de Chile, 1919).

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